Motivational Techniques

Motivationals methods in Switzerland MOTIVATIONAL METHODS THAT ARE MOST EFFECTIVE IN EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION Robert Gordon University – Business and Hotel Management School BA Hotel and Hospitality Management Course BS 3149 Research Methods for Business Students Module coordinator: Ms Heather Robinson Submission date: 9th April 2013 Student ID No. : 1219453 Word Count: 2008 1. TOPIC: Motivational methods that are most effective in hospitality employee motivation 2. QUESTION: What are the most successful methods to motivate restaurant employees in Switzerland? . ARTICLES ANKLI, R. E. , PALLIAM, R. , (2012). Enabling a motivated workforce: exploring the sources of motivation. Development and Learning in Organizations, 26(2), pp. 7 – 10 BASSETT-JONES, N. , LLOYD, G. C. , (2005). Does Herzberg's motivation theory have staying power?. Journal of Management Development, 24(10), pp. 929 – 943 ESKILDSEN, J. K. , KRISTENSEN, K. , and WESTLUND, A. H. , (2004). Work motivation and job satisfaction in the Nordic countries. Employee Relations, 26(2), pp. 122 – 136 LEE-ROSS, D. , (2005).Perceived job characteristics and internal work motivation: An exploratory cross-cultural analysis of the motivational antecedents of hotel workers in Mauritius and Australia. Journal of Management Development, 24(3), 253 – 266. STAMOV-ROSSNAGEL, C. , and HERTEL, G. , (2010). Older workers' motivation: against the myth of general decline. Management Decision, 48(6), 894 – 906. WHEELER, A. R. , BUCKLEY, M. R. , (2001). Examining the motivation process of temporary employees: A holistic model and research framework.Journal of Managerial Psychology, 16(5), pp. 339 – 354. OTHER SOURCES HERZBERG, F. , MAUSNER, B. , and SNYDERMAN, B. B. , 1959. Motivation to work. New York: Transaction Publishers. 4. RATIONALE The researcher believes that the topic selected is very significant for the restaurant and hospitality industry today and plays a key role in maxi mizing profit as motivating the workforce would further help in better service, food quality and even ability to retain customers up to a certain degree.According to Stamov-Rossnagel and Hertel (2010), the motivational factors depends on quite a wide range of possibilities, however one of them include the work environment, peers and the need to compete with the attainments of another worker in the same entity. These workers are motivated when they have the proper equipment desired for performing a specific task and are regularly updated with the latest equipment which would aid them in their tasks at work.When these workers feel that they are being monitored and are cared for by providing the equipment, proper working conditions, they inevitably feel the urge to perform better and are motivated. However, occasionally, the range of tasks in a job may not be as motivating as the particular task that the worker is interested in. Monitoring these tasks which motivate a worker should be specifically assigned to them to improve productivity. Managers should limit and avoid the use of any sort of cultural or ethical background about an employee while trying to judge the work or motivating him (Lee-Ross, 2005).Various western companies observed and practiced the approach of participative leadership and style of work which involved the decisions and views of every worker, which would indirectly rise their esteem and motivate them. Deference and responsibility are two highly important motivators. Individuals also have personal goals and if they are similar to those of the enterprise, then motivation is a very simple process. However, identifying the aims and goals of employees is mandatory to link it in a way to that of the organization and excel in revenues and market productivity.These individuals could bring up several innovative techniques and ideas, especially when they are at the prime of motivation level. Hence, the goals and aims of individuals matter largely in an enterprise for it to accelerate in the market. Temporary employees are a very common trend in today’s era where enormous multinational and private companies employee them specifically for reducing cost and being able to manipulate the schedule of the part time or temporary employees (Wheeler and Buckley, 2001).However, many private companies employee temporary employees and are expecting them to be motivated for the job. The full time workers also lose interest in explaining the part time workers about the work flow and the importance of following a systematic approach to every method and hence, the temporary workers do not feel the urge to perform better and accelerate in their position. The temporary workers are kept apart from the important decisions being taken in the organization and are isolated, especially in MNC’s such as McDonald’s Burger King and other various different fast food restaurants.However, this also implies to certain other casual restau rants which employs interns and other part time workers who as well are not motivated enough to put their efforts into the enterprise. The researcher explored the literature and identified the following few advantages of motivating people: 1. Creates an enthusiastic workforce 2. Enables the opportunity to resolve any confrontation within minutes and boost staff morale 3. Increases revenue of the restaurant . Eliminates the necessity of monitoring staff According to Eskildsen, Kristensen, and Westlund, (2004) women are more satisfied than men regarding job satisfaction, employees with higher level of education need not necessarily be more satisfied, but at time could even result to be the contrary. However, education level does not have an impact on intrinsic factors, whereas managerial positioned workers are more satisfied with their jobs.The Herzberg theory states that the motivational factors are divided into two main parts, the first known as the hygiene factors which are related to salary, working conditions and team work while the latter is related to motivational means (Bassett-Jones and Lloyd, 2005). Motivational means are based solely on 3 major factors, ability to exercise, opportunity to practice and feedback to self. These are explained in the book by Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman (1959) which describe the hygiene factors offered by the employer simply as ‘KITA’ or kick in the ass, which does not motivate one but rather threatens them to work harder in a way.If one possess the ability to perform or has a skill such as communication, service, cooking etc. he/she will be aiming to achieve better goals in life. However, if the person does not have the equipment and other necessary means to practice his skills, he will not be able to perform to the best and would not be motivated. This later includes a feedback, which may not always come from a higher authority but even from self helps. These are the 3 basic necessities for motivation and is related to every industry. 5. AIMS: The aim of this research paper is to analyse the best method(s) for motivating restaurant employees in Switzerland. . OBJECTIVES: To review past and current methods of employee motivation To examine the difference between employee motivation methods in different restaurants in Switzerland To evaluate the most used methods applied by employers and their effectiveness 7. METHODOLOGY The researcher was enthusiastic about collecting primary data and is looking forth to setup a network for communicating between several restaurants in Switzerland regarding the motivational techniques widely used within the restaurant for backing up employees for further work.The research philosophy surfaced as realism as the methods and techniques are applicable in the practical life and need to be reviewed once again for a more clear vision. Deductive approach was the best suited style for this kind of research where the researcher evaluated different concepts and theories set ahead of him by different philosophers and psychologists studying the area of motivation of employees in any type of an industry and a mixture of both qualitative and quantitative analysis were both necessary in such a project.Qualitative analysis hung on the literature and journal articles and will also include the surveys spread throughout certain restaurants in Switzerland, and the researcher would later interview and question the owner of a famous Indian restaurant in Zurich, Switzerland which is known for motivating its employees to a very high degree and enabling them to monitor and manage a restaurant solo.The researcher will distribute a questionnaire amongst 30 different employees of several restaurants in Luzern and in Zurich and also to 3-5 different restaurant managers for feedback regarding the motivational methods and techniques abundant in the vicinity. The sampling technique is non-probability, purposive method and focuses on only a niche of the populati on. Calculating the results from both the employer and employee would enlarge the scope of research and present forward a more ransparent knowledge of motivational means applied. The Fredrick Herzberg theory of motivational and hygienic factors are quite relevant to this focus topic and go hand in hand with the ideas of the researcher. The practical world believes in money being a very heavy motivator and as well as job security, working conditions and benefits. The researcher claims it to be false and would like to prove it on paper. 8. DRAFT QUESTIONS My name is Ankit Sharma and I am a student of Business and Hotel Management School in Luzern, Switzerland.This research survey will give me concrete evidence towards my project, ‘What are the most successful methods to motivate restaurant employees in Switzerland’ and aid me in my Research and Methodology class. The questions will be regarding the factors that will motivate the employees in a restaurant oriented job and the answers will be kept anonymous and confidential and used only for research purposes. Questionnaire 1 What are the factors that motivate you to work? Name: Age: Sex:Nationality: American African European Asian Other 1) From a scale of 1 to 4, 1 being very satisfied, how satisfied are you with your job? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 2) What is the first feature you look at when accepting a job? a. Pay b. Work hours c. Type of job d. Location 3) Your average daily work hours ranges from: a. 6-7 b. 7-8 c. 8-10 d. 10+ 4) Which of the following factors motivate you? a. Money b. Special benefits c. New challenges daily d. Job security 5) What is your average monthly income? a.

Psychology Perspectives

This behaviourist perspective is that we can understand any type of behaviour by looking at what the person has learned. Pesonality traits for example shyness, confidence, and optimism. Pavlov (CLASSICAL CONDITIONING) Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist working with dogs to investigate their digestive systems. The dogs tested where attached to harness, and Pavlov attached monitor to their stomachs and mouths so he could measure the rate of salvation. He noticed when the laboratory assistant came in with the food before the dog had actually tasted the food the dog began to salivate.Pavlov speculated that the dog salivating because it had learned to associate the laboratory assistant with the food. This is when his theory began. Food automatically led to the response of salivation. Since salivation is an automatic response, he called this unconditioned response. This means a response that regularly occurs when an unconditioned stimulus is presented. As the food automatically leads to t his response, he called this an unconditioned stimulus; this means a stimulus that regularly and consistently leads to an automatic (not learned) response.Pavlov then presented food at the same time as the bell; too see if the dog would learn to associate the bell with food. After many goes the dog learned that the bell associated with food and began to salivate when only the bell rung and no food was presented. This is called conditioned response; this means a new, learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that mimics the response to unconditioned stimulus, it had learned the conditioned response of salivation to the conditioned stimulus (the bell).Conditioned stimulus means a neutral stimulus that, when paired with the unconditioned stimulus, produces a conditioned (learned) response, just as the unconditioned response used to. Skinner (OPERANT CONDITIONING) Burrhus Frederic Skinner, an American psychologist who worked mostly with rats and pigeons, to discover some of the key principles of learning new behaviours. He used a famous device, called a Skinner box. The box contained a leaver which, when pressed, released a food pellet into the box, this reinforcing lever-pressing behaviour.At first when he rat is in the box it will be running around sniffing his new surroundings, which at some point it, will press the leaver, releasing a food pellet. After a while when the rat has repeatedly performed this action, it will learn that this behaviour (pressing the leaver) I automatically followed by the release of a food pellet (the consequence). As the pellet is experienced as reinforcing (something that the rat would like to have more of), you called this positive reinforcement, this is happens when the consequence following a particular is experienced as desirable.Skinner then used a negative reinforcement which is when behaviour results in a consequence that removes something unpleasant. The negative reinforcement he used was a very low electrical curren t on the floor of the Skinner box. The current could be de-activated if the rat pressed the lever. Social learning theory Role models are very important. We can learn new behaviour from anyone but we imitate behaviour if we are strongly influenced by the way we perceive the person. We can be influenced by others when we observe someone who we admire behaving in a particular way; we are more likely to imitate such behaviour.Solomon Asch, social psychologist conducted experiments to show how an individual’s behaviour could be influenced and changed because they did not want to stand out from a crowd. This is known as ‘Majority Influence’ we all have a powerful desire to fit in and belong. He gathered a group of 6 people together. These people were play acting according to instruction. They were joined by a naà ¯ve participant and asked to take part in a visual perception test. Albert Bandura, theory is we learn from people we are exposed to in our environment. We learn new behaviours from people we observe, either in real life or in the media.This is called observational learning. The person we learn from is known as a role model (someone who has characteristics that inspire us to copy their behaviour). The process of imitating is called modelling (a process of basing behaviour, attitude, and style, of speech or dress on someone we admire or would like to be. Introduction This is a theory of human development which emphasises the interaction of biological drives with the social environment. Sigmund Freud, an Austrian psychologist, who developed the theory of psychodynamic psychology and the treatment known as psychoanalysis.Freud suggested that what we are aware of is represented in our conscious mind but many of our memories, feelings and past experiences are locked up in a part of our mind which he calls â€Å"unconscious†. We cannot access the contents of our unconscious, but they often â€Å"leak out† in our dreams or maybe just slip out of our tongue. He said early experiences are also important is in later life behaviours is clearly illustrated by Freud’s development theory of psychosexual several stages; 1. Oral Stage, primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important.The mouth is crucial for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through rewarding activities such as tasting and sucking because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers, the infant also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation. 2. Anal Stage, primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training; the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence. 3. Phallic Stage, primary focus of the libido is on the genitals.At this age, children also begin to disco ver the differences between males and females. Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. 4. Latency Stage, The stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies and other interests. 5. Genital Stage, during the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.He tries to explain the power of early experience and how this may influence the adult personality. Freud divided the mind (the psyche) into 3 structures, the id, the ego and the superego. According to Freud these appear at different stages of a child’s development and are empowered by the libido (energy). The ID, part of the psyche we are born with, it operates on the pleasure principle, contains all our basic instincts such as need for food, drink, warmth. The Ego, part of the mind whose function it is to moderate the demands of the id and prevent the superego being too harsh, E. . Repression is a defence mechanism when a person forgets an event , denial is also a defence mechanism because your pushing am event or emotion out of consciousness. It operates on the reality principle. The superego, roughly equivalent to a conscience, the superego consists of an internalisation of all the values of the right and wrong we have been socialised to believe in. It also contains an image of our ideal self. Erik Erikson, a psychologist who agreed mostly with Freud’s theory in so far as he thought we developed through a series of stages.He also believed Freud’s put too much emphasis on our desire for individual gratification and not enough of our need to be accepted in society and lead meaningful life. The different psychosocial stages: Stage 1 (0-1 Year): This stage focuses on how the infant is parented, the positive outcom e of this is it dependable, responsive, and caring parenting leads to a sense of trust. The negative outcome is parenting lacks warmth and affection or is inconsistent leads to mistrust. Stage 2 (1- 3): This stage is being enabled to do things by yourself; the positive outcome is being supported in growing independence leads to a sense of autonomy.The negative outcome is being criticised and over-controlled leads to a feeling of doubt about your own competence. Stage 3 (3-6): This stage is interaction with the world; the positive is being encouraged to try out new skills and explore the world leads to a sense of initiative. The negative is being hampered in the desire to find things out. Stage 4 (6-12): This stage is to understand how things are made and how they work; the positive outcome is the ability to succeed at realistic tasks leads to a sense of industry. The negative outcome is being published take on tasks they are not ready for leafs to a sense of inferiority.Stage 5 (12- 18): This stage is developing a consistent sense of identify by experimentation, the positive outcome is the experimentation leads to a secure sense of identity. The negative outcome is the inabilities to experiment and develop a sense of identify leads to role confusion and a negative identify. Introduction Humanistic psychology looks at human experience from the viewpoint of the individual. It focuses on the idea of free will and the belief that we are all capable of making choices. Two psychologists associated with this approach are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) an American psychologist who believed that we are all seeking to become the best that we can be, spiritually, physically, emotionally and intellectually. He called this self-actualisation, with this he constructed a theory known as the hierarchy of needs, in which he explained that every human being requires certain basic needs to be met before they will be able to approach the next level. Masl ow believed that until our basic physiological needs are met, we will focus on all kind of energies on getting them met and not be able to progress further.When we are all well-houses, well-fed and comfortable physically, we begin to focus on our emotional needs, such and the need to belong and be loved and to feel self-esteem. When our lives are such that these needs are met, we strive to self-actualise. Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was particularly interested in the concept of self. There are many aspects of the self but there are three important ones, self-esteem, self-concept and internalise. Self-Esteem, this is how valuable we feel as individuals. Someone with high self-esteem will believe they are loved and loveable and that they are important and valued.On the other hand people with low self-esteem may feel themselves to be worthless, of no value to anyone else, unloved and unlovable. Self-concept, this is how we see ourselves. In early life this comes from what we are told about ourselves E. g. You’re so Amazing, You’re such a good singer. As we grow older, our ability to think about ourselves develops and we begin to incorporate our own judgements e. g. I was really good at Science, I was the best driver, I wasn’t invited to that party- I was unpopular. Internalise, this is to do the way we take in information from the outside world and build it into our sense of self.It then becomes part of our feelings, thoughts and beliefs about who we are and what we expect from the world around us. Introduction This psychological perspective gas gained enormous ground since the 1960’sm when the influence of behaviourism began to wane. A great deal of research has been devoted to understanding cognitive processes such as attention , memory , perception, information processing , problem solving , though language and other aspects of cognition. Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a Swiss psychologist who initially worked on measuring intelligence.He came to a conclusion that cognition develops through a series of stages m each new stage building on the previous one after he noticed children the same age made the same mistakes in logic. Stage 1: Sensory-motor (0-2), the world is experienced through motor activity and the senses. Stage 2: Pre-operational (2-7), Language develops along with memory. The child is egocentric and unable to conserve. Stage 3: Concrete operational (7-11), the child can now understand conversation but cannot yet solve problems mentally.Stage 4: Formal operational (11+), the child can now use abstract thoughts and represent problems mentally. Introduction The biological perspective is one of the major approaches to doing psychological research, which is focused on the idea that behaviours have biological causes. Common types of biological studies on behaviour include things like the effects of physical child abuse on future adult actions, how injuries such as head trauma affect behaviour, or whether or no t criminal behaviour can be explained by genetics.Maturation theory: The theory holds that the effects of the environment are miminal. The child is born with a set of genetic instructions passed down from its parents, and it’s cognitive, physical and other developmental processes merely unfold over time, rather than being dependent upon the environment to mature. This is the effect, a theory which states that development is due to nature not nature. Arnold Gesell, a psychologist and educator in the 1940s, was interested in child development. He did frequent observations of children, which Gesell formulated a theory known as maturation.This theory stated that developmental changes in a child's body or behaviour are a result of the aging process rather than from learning, injury, illness, or some other life experience. Gesell's idea of maturation was fixed in the biological, physiological, and evolutionary sciences. As a result, Gesell centered most of his theory on the power o f biological forces, which he felt provided momentum for development to occur. Gesell and his contemporaries proposed that development follows an arranged sequence and that the biological and evolutionary history of the species decides the order of this cycle.Maturation supports the idea that each child's unique genetic and biological makeup determines the rate of development despite of other potential environmental influences. Genetic influences on behaviour, genes can affect behaviour in many ways. Some disorders, such as cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anaemia, are caused when both parents pass on the gene for the disorder. Disorders that occur regardless of environmental influences, such as those listed above, are genetically determined disorders. This means that the individual who inherits the gene or genes is certain to develop the disorder, regardless of environmental factors.The influence of the nervous and endocrine systems on behaviour, the autonomic system produces its ef fects through activation of nerve fibres throughout the nervous system, brain and body or by stimulating the release of hormones from endocrine glands such as adrenal and pineal glands. The hormones are biochemical substances and they are released into the blood stream and have a profound effect on target organs and on behaviour. They are present in very small groups and individual molecules have a very short life, so their effects quickly disappear if they are not secreted 24/7.There are all sorts of different hormones in our body including. Melatonin, which is released by the pineal gland and its job, is to act on the brainstem sleep mechanism to help synchronise the phrases of sleep and activity. The second hormone is testosterone; this is released in the testicles in which may influence aggressive behaviour. The last one is oxytocin; this is release by the pituitary gland and stimulates the milk production and female orgasms. Only some hormones are released as a response to exte rnal stimuli. For example, the pineal glands respond to reduced daylight by increasing production of melatonin.M1 After doing my P1 criteria, I’ve look backed and only certain perspectives explain well and here are my opinions on them. These are Skinner (Behaviourist Perspective), Carl Rodgers (Humanistic Perspective), Sigmund Freud (Psychodynamic Approach) and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs helps explain also. On the other hand, I do not agree that our behaviour is simply down to our genes. In my opinion I believe that the environment and what we surround our self with has a huge impact on our behaviour. Due to this explanation I don’t think Gesell explains it very clear.I think Albert Bandura explains it very well as it is true we do tend to try to be like and want to be like people we consider as our role model. However, we only copy behaviours that interest us. In my opinion I don’t think the biological perspective explains behaviour well as I donâ€℠¢t believe that just our genes determine our behaviour, to me there is more to it. Such as our upbringing and environment and personal beliefs. People may say we don’t always copy a behaviour that we have seen by observing others as it may be reinforcing negative behaviour and therefore we recognize it as wrong and for those reasons we do not want to copy it.The behaviour could also be something that you don’t agree with as it may go against your beliefs or the way you have been brought up E. g. Moral and Values. We are more likely to copy behaviour from someone we know E. g. Peers like Family and Friends or aspire to be like. We are likely not to copy if we don’t have the same opinion or if it is simply against our beliefs or what we have been told. If the person has had a bad experience from doing certain behaviours, then we see it as a lesson and as a result we do not do the same, as we see it as negative behaviour.Another reason is if the outcome of that spe cific behaviour wasn’t something we anticipate. Also if the person who behaved in a certain way. In addition to this we are less likely to copy someone who is being punished for a certain action. We only imitate behaviours that interest us. Therefore, in my opinion I feel like the approach that is best at explaining behaviour is Skinner and his skinner box. I think this is the best approach when explaining behaviour as it is truthful and the outcome have shown this.I also believe it is the most successful as I believe it is true when we are satisfied with something and like the way it works. We will continue to use that service as long as it keeps us happy and meets our needs. This is very similar to what the rat was doing inside the Skinner box. Whenever the rat felt hungry it would press the lever which would then release a food pellet. The rat then continues to press the lever. This is similar to an individual being satisfies with a service as it is giving the individual w hat it requires therefore they keep going back.As they see it as a positive experience. Then it became an unpleasant experience when the rat was becoming electric shocked once pressing the lever. The rat then learned that it would continue to receive the shock if it continued to press the lever. So the rat learned to stop as it wasn’t having a pleasant experience. This is the same with us, if we started to have a horrible experience somewhere the likeliness is that we would stop using that service, and in the same way the rat stopped using the lever. Also when we do something where we see positive results, we will carry on.However, when the conflicting event occurs we will learn to stop carrying out that behaviour as it isn’t working in the way we wish. Therefore I believe this is the best approach to behaviour as I feel it is the truest in real life. My second person who I think explains behaviour well is Sigmund Freud. This is because he explained behaviour in a way where people can relate too. As the past we don’t often perhaps think of but sometimes it may hit us and make us realise that we were still carrying those memories and past experiences with us but we just didn’t realise.He also said they often leak out in dreams and slips of the tongue. Although we don’t always think of it as such, it is still there with us and that is what makes us dream about it. We then realise that it is still on our mind and it is something that is still creating an effect on us, even if the event occurred many years ago. My last person I agree with is Carl Rodgers. I judge what a child has been told throughout their life, will affect who and how they develop when they are older.For example, someone who has been called horrible names, will feel of no value will develop a low self esteem and confidence and they won’t feel good enough to do certain events. They will not feel very constructive about themselves. Therefore they may give u p on life and may miss many good opportunities. However someone who has always be pushed in life and have been told that they are smart and will do well, may actually go on in life and do well as they feel they have people that believe them. Therefore they believe in themselves and so this person will have developed a high self esteem and may be quite.

The Twilight Saga 4: Breaking Dawn 23. Memories

Tm so sorry, Seth. I should have been closer.† Edward was still apologizing, and I didn't think that was either fair or appropriate. After all, Edward hadn't completely and inexcusably lost control of his temper. Edward hadn't tried to rip Jacob's head off – Jacob, who wouldn't even phase to protect himself – and then accidentally broken Seth's shoulder and collarbone when he jumped in between. Edward hadn't almost killed his best friend. Not that the best friend didn't have a few things to answer for, but, obviously, nothing Jacob had done could have mitigated my behavior. So shouldn't have been the one apologizing? I tried again. â€Å"Seth, I – â€Å" â€Å"Don't worry about it, Bella, I'm totally fine,† Seth said at the same time that Edward said, â€Å"Bella, love, no one is judging you. You're doing so well.† They hadn't let me finish a sentence yet. It only made it worse that Edward was having a difficult time keeping the smile off his face. I knew that Jacob didn't deserve my overreaction, but Edward seemed to find something satisfying in it. Maybe he was just wishing that he had the excuse of being a newborn so that he could do something physical about his irritation with Jacob, too. I tried to erase the anger from my system entirely, but it was hard, knowing that Jacob was outside with Renesmee right now. Keeping her safe from me, the crazed newborn. Carlisle secured another piece of the brace to Seth's arm, and Seth winced. â€Å"Sorry, sorry!† I mumbled, knowing I'd never get a fully articulated apology out. â€Å"Don't freak, Bella,† Seth said, patting my knee with his good hand while Edward rubbed my arm from the other side. Seth seemed to feel no aversion to having me sit beside him on the sofa as Carlisle treated him. â€Å"I'll be back to normal in half an hour,† he continued, still patting my knee as if oblivious to the cold, hard texture of it. â€Å"Anyone would have done the same, what with Jake and Ness – † He broke off mid-word and changed the subject quickly. â€Å"I mean, at least you didn't bite me or anything. That would've sucked.† I buried my face in my hands and shuddered at the thought, at the very real possibility. It could have happened so easily. And werewolves didn't react to vampire venom the same way humans did, they'd told me only now. It was poison to them. â€Å"I'm a bad person.† â€Å"Of course you aren't. I should have – ,† Edward started. â€Å"Stop that,† I sighed. I didn't want him taking the blame for this the way he always took everything on himself. â€Å"Lucky thing Ness – Renesmee's not venomous,† Seth said after a second of awkward silence. ‘†Cause she bites Jake all the time.† My hands dropped. â€Å"She does?† â€Å"Sure. Whenever he and Rose don't get dinner in her mouth fast enough. Rose thinks it's pretty hilarious.† I stared at him, shocked, and also feeling guilty, because I had to admit that this pleased me a teensy bit in a petulant way. Of course, I already knew that Renesmee wasn't venomous. I was the first person she'd bitten. I didn't make this observation aloud, as I was feigning memory loss on those recent events. â€Å"Well, Seth,† Carlisle said, straightening up and stepping away from us. â€Å"I think that's as much as I can do. Try to not move for, oh, a few hours, I guess.† Carlisle chuckled. â€Å"I wish treating humans were this instantaneously gratifying.† He rested his hand for a moment on Seth's black hair. â€Å"Stay still,† he ordered, and then he disappeared upstairs. I heard his office door close, and I wondered if they'd already removed the evidence of my time there. â€Å"I can probably manage sitting still for a while,† Seth agreed after Carlisle was already gone, and then he yawned hugely. Carefully, making sure not to tweak his shoulder, Seth leaned his head against the sofa's back and closed his eyes. Seconds later, his mouth fell slack. I frowned at his peaceful face for another minute. Like Jacob, Seth seemed to have the gift of falling asleep at will. Knowing I wouldn't be able to apologize again for a while, I got up; the motion didn't jostle the couch in the slightest. Everything physical was so easy. But the rest†¦ Edward followed me to the back windows and took my hand. Leah was pacing along the river, stopping every now and then to look at the house. It was easy to tell when she was looking for her brother and when she was looking for me. She alternated between anxious glances and murderous glares. I could hear Jacob and Rosalie outside on the front steps bickering quietly over whose turn it was to feed Renesmee. Their relationship was as antagonistic as ever; the only thing they agreed on now was that I should be kept away from my baby until I was one hundred percent recovered from my temper tantrum. Edward had disputed their verdict, but I'd let it go. I wanted to be sure, too. I was worried, though, that my one hundred percent sure and their one hundred percent sure might be very different things. Other than their squabbling, Seth's slow breathing, and Leah's annoyed panting, it was very quiet. Emmett, Alice, and Esme were hunting. Jasper had stayed behind to watch me. He stood unobtrusively behind the newel post now, trying not to be obnoxious about it. I took advantage of the calm to think of all the things Edward and Seth had told me while Carlisle splinted Seth's arm. I'd missed a whole lot while I was burning, and this was the first real chance to catch up. The main thing was the end of the feud with Sam's pack – which was why the others felt safe to come and go as they pleased again. The truce was stronger than ever. Or more binding, depending on your viewpoint, I imagined. Binding, because the most absolute of all the pack's laws was that no wolf ever kill the object of another wolfs imprinting. The pain of such a thing would be intolerable for the whole pack. The fault, whether intended or accidental, could not be forgiven; the wolves involved would fight to the death – there was no other option. It had happened long ago, Seth told me, but only accidentally. No wolf would ever intentionally destroy a brother that way. So Renesmee was untouchable because of the way Jacob now felt about her. I tried to concentrate on the relief of this fact rather than the chagrin, but it wasn't easy. My mind had enough room to feel both emotions intensely at the same time. And Sam couldn't get mad about my transformation, either, because Jacob – speaking as the rightful Alpha – had allowed it. It rankled to realize over and over again how much I owed Jacob when I just wanted to be mad at him. I deliberately redirected my thoughts in order to control my emotions. I considered another interesting phenomenon; though the silence between the separate packs continued, Jacob and Sam had discovered that Alphas could speak to each other while in their wolf form. It wasn't the same as before; they couldn't hear every thought the way they had prior to the split. It was more like speaking aloud, Seth had said. Sam could only hear the thoughts Jacob wanted to share, and vice versa. They found they could communicate over distance, too, now that they were talking to each other again. They hadn't found all this out until Jacob had gone alone – over Seth's and Leah's objections – to explain to Sam about Renesmee; it was the only time he'd left Renesmee since first laying eyes on her. Once Sam had understood how absolutely everything had changed, he'd come back with Jacob to talk to Carlisle. They'd spoken in human form (Edward had refused to leave my side to translate), and the treaty had been renewed. The friendly feeling of the relationship, however, might never be the same. One big worry down. But there was another that, though not as physically dangerous as an angry wolf pack, still seemed more urgent to me. Charlie. He'd spoken to Esme earlier this morning, but that hadn't kept him from calling again, twice, just a few minutes ago while Carlisle treated Seth. Carlisle and Edward had let the phone ring. What would be the right thing to tell him? Were the Cullens right? Was telling him that I'd died the best, the kindest way? Would I be able to lie still in a coffin while he and my mother cried over me? tt didn't seem right to me. But putting Charlie or Renee in danger of the Volturi's obsession with secrecy was clearly out of the question. There was still my idea – let Charlie see me, when I was ready for that, and let him make his own wrong assumptions. Technically, the vampire rules would remain unbroken. Wouldn't it be better for Charlie if he knew that I was alive – sort of – and happy? Even if I was strange and different and probably frighteningtohim? My eyes, in particular, were much too frightening right now. How long before my self-control and my eye color were ready for Charlie? â€Å"What's the matter, Bella?† Jasper asked quietly, reading my growing tension. â€Å"No one is angry with you† – alow snarl from the riverside contradicted him, but he ignored it – â€Å"or even surprised, really. Well, I suppose we are surprised. Surprised that you were able to snap out of it so quickly. You did well. Better than anyone expects of you.† While he was speaking, the room became very calm. Seth's breathing slipped into a low snore. Ifelt more peaceful, but I didn't forget my anxieties. â€Å"I was thinking about Charlie, actually.† Out front, the bickering cut off. â€Å"Ah,† Jasper murmured. â€Å"We really have to leave, don't we?† I asked. â€Å"For a while, at the very least. Pretend we're in Atlanta or something.† I could feel Edward's gaze locked on my face, but I looked at Jasper. He was the one who answered me in a grave tone. â€Å"Yes. It's the only way to protect your father.† I brooded for a moment. â€Å"I'm going to miss him so much. I'll miss everyone here.† Jacob,I thought, despite myself. Though that yearning was both vanished and defined – and I was vastly relieved that it was – he was still my friend. Someone who knew the real me and accepted her. Even as a monster. I thought about what Jacob had said, pleading with me before I'd attacked him. You said we belonged in each other's lives, right? That we were family. You said that was how you and I were supposed to be. So†¦ now we are. It's what you wanted. But it didn't feel like how I'd wanted it. Not exactly. I remembered further back, to the fuzzy, weak memories of my human life. Back to the very hardest part to remember – the time without Edward, a time so dark I'd tried to bury it in my head. I couldn't get the words exactly right; I only remembered wishing that Jacob were my brother so that we could love each other without any confusion or pain. Family. But I'd never factored a daughter into the equation. I remembered a little later – one of the many times that I'd told Jacob goodbye – wondering aloud who he would end up with, who would make his life right after what I'd done to it. I had said something about how whoever she was, she wouldn't be good enough for him. I snorted, and Edward raised one eyebrow questioningly. I just shook my head at him. But as much as I might miss my friend, I knew there was a bigger problem. Had Sam or Jared or Quil ever gone a whole day without seeing the objects of their fixations, Emily, Kim, and Claire? Could they? What would the separation from Renesmee do to Jacob? Would it cause him pain? There was still enough petty ire in my system to make me glad, not for his pain, but for the idea of having Renesmee away from him. How was I supposed to deal with having her belong to Jacob when she only barely seemed to belong to me? The sound of movement on the front porch interrupted my thoughts. I heard them get up, and then they were through the door. At exactly the same time, Carlisle came down the stairs with his hands full of odd things – a measuring tape, a scale. Jasper darted to my side. As if there was some signal I'd missed, even Leah sat down outside and stared through the window with an expression like she was expecting something that was both familiar and also totally uninteresting. â€Å"Must be six,† Edward said. â€Å"So?† I asked, my eyes locked on Rosalie, Jacob, and Renesmee. They stood in the doorway, Renesmee in Rosalie's arms. Rose looked wary. Jacob looked troubled. Renesmee looked beautiful and impatient. â€Å"Time to measure Ness – er, Renesmee,† Carlisle explained. â€Å"Oh. You do this every day?† â€Å"Four times a day,† Carlisle corrected absently as he motioned the others toward the couch. I thought I saw Renesmee sigh. â€Å"Four times? Every day? Why?† â€Å"She's still growing quickly,† Edward murmured to me, his voice quiet and strained. He squeezed my hand, and his other arm wrapped securely around my waist, almost as if he needed the support. I couldn't take my eyes off Renesmee to check his expression. She looked perfect, absolutely healthy. Her skin glowed like backlit alabaster; the color in her cheeks was rose petals against it. There couldn't be anything wrong with such radiant beauty. Surely there could be nothing more dangerous in her life than her mother. Could there? The difference between the child I'd given birth to and the one I'd met again an hour ago would have been obvious to anyone. The difference between Renesmee an hour ago and Renesmee now was subtler. Human eyes never would have detected it. But it was there. Her body was slightly longer. Just a little bit slimmer. Her face wasn't quite as round; it was more oval by one minute degree. Her ringlets hung a sixteenth of an inch lower down her shoulders. She stretched out helpfully in Rosalie's arms while Carlisle ran the tape measure down the length of her and then used it to circle her head. He took no notes; perfect recall. I was aware that Jacob's arms were crossed as tightly over his chest as Edward's arms were locked around me. His heavy brows were mashed together into one line over his deep-set eyes. She had matured from a single cell to a normal-sized baby in the course of a few weeks. She looked well on her way to being a toddler just days after her birth. If this rate of growth held†¦ My vampire mind had no trouble with the math. â€Å"What do we do?† I whispered, horrified. Edward's arms tightened. He understood exactly what I was asking. â€Å"I don't know.† â€Å"It's slowing,† Jacob muttered through his teeth. â€Å"We'll need several more days of measurements to track the trend, Jacob. I can't make any promises.† â€Å"Yesterday she grew two inches. Today it's less.† â€Å"By a thirty-second of an inch, if my measurements are perfect,† Carlisle said quietly. â€Å"Be perfect, Doc,† Jacob said, making the words almost threatening. Rosalie stiffened. â€Å"You know I'll do my best,† Carlisle assured him. Jacob sighed. â€Å"Guess that's all I can ask.† I felt irritated again, like Jacob was stealing my lines – and delivering them all wrong. Renesmee seemed irritated, too. She started to squirm and then reached her hand imperiously toward Rosalie. Rosalie leaned forward so that Renesmee could touch her face. After a second, Rose sighed. â€Å"What does she want?† Jacob demanded, taking my line again. â€Å"Bella, of course,† Rosalie told him, and her words made my insides feel a little warmer. Then she looked at me. â€Å"How are you?† â€Å"Worried,† I admitted, and Edward squeezed me. â€Å"We all are. But that's not what I meant.† â€Å"I'm in control,† I promised. Thirstiness was way down the list right now. Besides, Renesmee smelled good in a very non-food way. Jacob bit his lip but made no move to stop Rosalie as she offered Renesmee to me. Jasper and Edward hovered but allowed it. I could see how tense Rose was, and I wondered how the room felt to Jasper right now. Or was he focusing so hard on me that he couldn't feel the others? Renesmee reached for me as I reached for her, a blinding smile lighting her face. She fit so easily in my arms, like they'd been shaped just for her. Immediately, she put her hot little hand against my cheek. Though I was prepared, it still made me gasp to see the memory like a vision in my head. So bright and colorful but also completely transparent. She was remembering me charging Jacob across the front lawn, remembering Seth leaping between us. She'd seen and heard it all with perfect clarity. It didn't look like me, this graceful predator leaping at her prey like an arrow arcing from a bow. It had to be someone else. That made me feel a very small bit less guilty as Jacob stood there defenselessly with his hands raised in front of him. His hands did not tremble. Edward chuckled, watching Renesmee's thoughts with me. And then we both winced as we heard the crack of Seth's bones. Renesmee smiled her brilliant smile, and her memory eyes did not leave Jacob through all the following mess. I tasted a new flavor to the memory – not exactly protective, more possessive – as she watched Jacob. I got the distinct impression that she was glad Seth had put himself in front of my spring. She didn't want Jacob hurt. He was hers. â€Å"Oh, wonderful,'71 groaned. â€Å"Perfect.† â€Å"It's just because he tastes better than the rest of us,† Edward assured me, voice stiff with his own annoyance. â€Å"I told you she likes me, too,† Jacob teased from across the room, his eyes on Renesmee. His joking was halfhearted; the tense angle of his eyebrows had not relaxed. Renesmee patted my face impatiently, demanding my attention. Another memory: Rosalie pulling a brush gently through each of her curls. It felt nice. Carlisle and his tape measure, knowing she had to stretch and be still. It was not interesting to her. â€Å"It looks like she's going to give you a rundown of everything you missed,† Edward commented in my ear. My nose wrinkled as she dumped the next one on me. The smell coming from a strange metal cup – hard enough not to be bitten through easily – sent a flash burn through my throat. Ouch. And then Renesmee was out of my arms, which were pinned behind my back. I didn't struggle with Jasper; I just looked at Edward's frightened face. â€Å"What did I do?† Edward looked at Jasper behind me, and then at me again. â€Å"But she was remembering being thirsty,† Edward muttered, his forehead pressing into lines. â€Å"She was remembering the taste of human blood.† Jasper's arms pulled mine tighter together. Part of my head noted that this wasn't particularly uncomfortable, let alone painful, as it would have been to a human. It was just annoying. I was sure I could break his hold, but I didn't fight it. â€Å"Yes,† I agreed. â€Å"And?† Edward frowned at me for a second more, and then his expression loosened. He laughed once. â€Å"And nothing at all, it seems. The overreaction is mine this time. Jazz, let her go.† The binding hands disappeared. I reached out for Renesmee as soon as I was free. Edward handed her to me without hesitation. â€Å"I can't understand,† Jasper said. â€Å"I can't bear this.† I watched in surprise as Jasper strode out the back door. Leah moved to give him a wide margin of space as he paced to the river and then launched himself over it in one bound. Renesmee touched my neck, repeating the scene of departure right back, like an instant replay. I could feel the question in her thought, an echo of mine. I was already over the shock of her odd little gift. It seemed an entirely natural part of her, almost to be expected. Maybe now that I was part of the supernatural myself, I would never be a skeptic again. But what was wrong with Jasper? â€Å"He'll be back,† Edward said, whether to me or Renesmee, I wasn't sure. â€Å"He just needs a moment alone to readjust his perspective on life.† There was a grin threatening at the corners of his mouth. Another human memory – Edward telling me that Jasper would feel better about himself if I â€Å"had a hard time adjusting† to being a vampire. This was in the context of a discussion about how many people I would kill my first newborn year. â€Å"Is he mad at me?† I asked quietly. Edward's eyes widened. â€Å"No. Why would he be?† â€Å"What's the matter with him, then?† â€Å"He's upset with himself, not you, Bella. He's worrying about†¦ self-fulfilling prophecy, I suppose you could say.† â€Å"How so?† Carlisle asked before I could. â€Å"He's wondering if the newborn madness is really as difficult as we've always thought, or if, with the right focus and attitude, anyone could do as well as Bella. Even now – perhaps he only has such difficulty because he believes it's natural and unavoidable. Maybe if he expected more of himself, he would rise to those expectations. You're making him question a lot of deep-rooted assumptions, Bella.† â€Å"But that's unfair,† Carlisle said. â€Å"Everyone is different; everyone has their own challenges. Perhaps what Bella is doing goes beyond the natural. Maybe this is her gift, so to speak.† I froze with surprise. Renesmee felt the change, and touched me. She remembered the last second of time and wondered why. â€Å"That's an interesting theory, and quite plausible,† Edward said. For a tiny space, I was disappointed. What? No magic visions, no formidable offensive abilities like, oh, shooting lightning bolts from my eyes or something? Nothing helpful or cool at all? And then I realized what that might mean, if my â€Å"superpower† was no more than exceptional self-control. For one thing, at least I had a gift. It could have been nothing. But, much more than that, if Edward was right, then I could skip right over the part I'd feared the very most. What if I didn't have to be a newborn? Not in the crazed killing-machine sense, anyway. What if I could fit right in with the Cullens from my first day? What if we didn't have to hide out somewhere remote for a year while I â€Å"grew up†? What if, like Carlisle, I never killed a single person? What if I could be a good vampire right away? I could see Charlie. I sighed as soon as reality filtered through hope. I couldn't see Charlie right away. The eyes, the voice, the perfected face. What could I possibly say to him; how could I even begin? I was furtively glad that I had some excuses for putting things off for a while; as much as I wanted to find some way to keep Charlie in my life, I was terrified of that first meeting. Seeing his eyes pop as he took in my new face, my new skin. Knowing that he was frightened. Wondering what dark explanation would form in his head. I was chicken enough to wait for a year while my eyes cooled. And here I'd thought I would be so fearless when I was indestructible. â€Å"Have you ever seen an equivalent to self-control as a talent?† Edward asked Carlisle. â€Å"Do you really think that's a gift, or just a product of all her preparation?† Carlisle shrugged, ‘it's slightly similar to what Siobhan has always been able to do, though she wouldn't call it a gift.† â€Å"Siobhan, your friend in that Irish coven?† Rosalie asked. 1 wasn't aware that she did anything special. I thought it was Maggie who was talented in that bunch.† â€Å"Yes, Siobhan thinks the same. But she has this way of deciding her goals and then almost†¦ willing them into reality. She considers it good planning, but I've always wondered if it was something more. When she included Maggie, for instance. Liam was very territorial, but Siobhan wanted it to work out, and so it did.† Edward, Carlisle, and Rosalie settled into chairs as they continued with the discussion. Jacob sat next to Seth protectively, looking bored. From the way his eyelids drooped, I was sure he'd be unconscious momentarily. I listened, but my attention was divided. Renesmee was still telling me about her day. I held her by the window wall, my arms rocking her automatically as we stared into each other's eyes. I realized that the others had no reason for sitting down. I was perfectly comfortable standing. It was just as restful as stretching out on a bed would be. I knew I would be able to stand like this for a week without moving and I would feel just as relaxed at the end of the seven days as I did at the beginning. They must sit out of habit. Humans would notice someone standing for hours without ever shifting her weight to a different foot. Even now, I saw Rosalie brush her fingers against her hair and Carlisle cross his legs. Little motions to keep from being too still, too much a vampire. I would have to pay attention to what they did and start practicing. I rolled my weight back to my left leg. It felt kind of silly. Maybe they were just trying to give me a little alone time with my baby – as alone as was safe. Renesmee told me about every minute happening of the day, and I got the feeling from the tenor of her little stories that she wanted me to know her every bit as much I wanted the same thing. It worried her that I had missed things – like the sparrows that had hopped closer and closer when Jacob had held her, both of them very still beside one of the big hemlocks; the birds wouldn't come close to Rosalie. Or the outrageously icky white stuff – baby formula – that Carlisle had put in her cup; it smelled like sour dirt. Or the song Edward had crooned to her that was so perfect Renesmee played it for me twice; I was surprised that I was in the background of that memory, perfectly motionless but looking fairly battered still. I shuddered, remembering that time from my own perspective. The hideous fire†¦ After almost an hour – the others were still deeply absorbed in their discussion, Seth and Jacob snoring in harmony on the couch – Renesmee's memory stories began to slow. They got slightly blurry around the edges and drifted out of focus before they came to their conclusions. I was about to interrupt Edward in a panic – was there something wrong with her? – when her eyelids fluttered and closed. She yawned, her plump pink lips stretching into a round O, and her eyes never reopened. Her hand fell away from my face as she drifted to sleep – the backs of her eyelids were the pale lavender color of thin clouds before the sunrise. Careful not to disturb her, I lifted that hand back to my skin and held it there curiously. At first there was nothing, and then, after a few minutes, a flickering of colors like a handful of butterflies were scattering from her thoughts. Mesmerized, I watched her dreams. There was no sense to it. Just colors and shapes and faces. I was pleased by how often my face – both of my faces, hideous human and glorious immortal – cropped up in her unconscious thoughts. More than Edward or Rosalie. I was neck and neck with Jacob; I tried not to let that get to me. For the first time, I understood how Edward had been able to watch me sleep night after boring night, just to hear me talk in my sleep. I could watch Renesmee dream forever. The change in Edward's tone caught my attention when he said, â€Å"Finally,† and turned to gaze out the window. It was deep, purply night outside, but I could see just as far as before. Nothing was hidden in the darkness; everything had just changed colors. Leah, still glowering, got up and slunk into the brush just as Alice came into view on the other side of the river. Alice swung back and forth from a branch like a trapeze artist, toes touching hands, before throwing her body into a graceful flat spin over the river. Esme made a more traditional leap, while Emmett charged right through the water, splashing water so far that splatters hit the back windows. To my surprise, Jasper followed after, his own efficient leap seeming understated, even subtle, after the others. k The huge grin stretching Alice's face was familiar in a dim, odd way. Everyone was suddenly smiting at me – Esme sweet, Emmett excited, Rosalie a little superior, Carlisle indulgent, and Edward expectant. Alice skipped into the room ahead of everyone else, her hand stretched out in front of her and impatience making a nearly visible aura around her. In her palm was an everyday brass key with an oversized pink satin bow tied around it. She held the key out for me, and I automatically gripped Renesmee more securely in my right arm so that I could open my left. Alice dropped the key into it. â€Å"Happy birthday!† she squealed. I rolled my eyes. â€Å"No one starts counting on the actual day of birth,† I reminded her. â€Å"Your first birthday is at the year mark, Alice.† Her grin turned smug. â€Å"We're not celebrating your vampire birthday. Yet. It's September thirteenth, Bella. Happy nineteenth birthday!†

A Problem Exists Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

A Problem Exists - Essay Example A Problem Exists English, as an international language, is measured to be one of the most commonly spoken languages around the globe. Historically, the language is regarded as a West Germanic language mostly articulated in initial primitive England (Mydans, 2007). Over the recent years, the language has been adapted by many nations as their first language, especially those located in the western hemisphere of the globe. The scenario seems to be completely opposite in some regions however; especially in the Asian region. It is in this context that with the advent of globalization and greater need of exposure in the world society, common people are motivated to migrate from their home countries and locate in western countries. This in turn has resulted in the growing acceptance of the language and correspondingly to the augmenting necessity to gain proficiency in speaking English. However, the increase in the migration rate from Asian countries and the issue of discrimination from the English communities in the present days often deceive the foreign learners intending to learn the language to perceive a false imprint of discrimination’ (Jimenez, 2011). THESIS STATEMENT After identifying the three prime problems associated with the issue of perceived discrimination, i.e. ... Discussion The increasing trend of adopting English as the first language by both the society and business are not only inspiring people to pursue their education in English language but are also motivating them to learn the language as it would help them to get a better job in the near future in the global realm. The importance of learning English has been viewed as increasing in countries that are developing at a rapid pace and therefore striving to strengthen their positioning within the global plethora. Countries like China, India and other Asian nations located in the South Asian region are replacing their national language with English as the medium of providing education and developing communication skills of the workforce to be able to compete globally. Correspondingly, it has been viewed that people who migrate to other countries often feel a sense of perceived discrimination’, at times tend to affect their academic and social life to a substantial extent (Jeffrey, n. d.). Correspondingly, problems in terms of social and cultural disparity, complexities in communicating and inequality between communities are identified. 1. Solution to Social and Cultural Problem It has often been viewed that people who migrate to western counties from the Asian region are basically individuals who consider English as a Second Language (ESL) and are often clarified as the basic foreign learners of the language. These students often find it difficult to ask questions to their teachers or work in coordination with their fellow-classmates when they get admitted in colleges or university outside their nation owing to their perceived social and cultural differences. Emphasizing this concern, if large non-government

History and Development of Traditional Chinese Medicine Essay

History and Development of Traditional Chinese Medicine - Essay Example With respect to the sages, Zhang Cong Zheng is one of the most notable. This paper will explore his works, theories and philosophies including his influence in the development of Chinese traditional medicine. Also known as Zhang Zi-he, Zhang Cong Zheng founded the Gong Xia Pai, which is the School of Attack and Precipitation or Purgation. Here, there was an emphasis on the approach to disease as caused by the presence of evil qi (Yang, 1993, pp.vii). This kind of qi involves those pathogenic factors that must be flushed out of the human body with the use of drugs and treatment, hence, the titular name of the school. Together with other great masters such as Liu Wansu, Li Gao and Zhu Zhenheng, Zhang Cong Zheng was able to further promote the Chinese traditional medicine, exploring it from different angles, enriching and expanding it in the process. Zhang Cong Zheng was born between 1156 and 1200 CE in He Jian, Hebei Province. The place and time is important because they underscore the influences to the sages philosophies that led to the school that he founded. First, he lived during the Jin-Yuan period and that the three other great masters were his contemporaries or close to his generation. What these all mean is that he was able to incorporate elements of treatment from his Jin-Yuan contemporaries. The great master Liu Wansu, for instance, was already dead during his time, but the sages cold/cooling method heavily influenced Zhang Cong Zhengs work. There were also protracted conflicts and plagues that marked the period, providing a new environment and, therefore, new requirements for medical treatment and practice. Zhang Cong Zheng is known for his purgation method, where treatment involves the inducement of pathogens in bodily processes. This works within an understanding of pathology based on the climatic qi of heaven and earth. According to Buck, Zhang Cong Zheng, through his purgation school improved on a Liu

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Web User Interface Design Principals - Term Paper Example Web user interface designing is therefore the process of creating or improving the visual and utility of a website by making it user friendly. This is achieved by making the website contain the following principals: user friendly, this is when the user enjoys using the interface due to ease in utility; simple memorization, the user is able to remember how to use the structure of the site ease after a period of time without using the interface; reliable, the interface can easily meet users' needs with minimal effort and resources; efficient, the user goals are meet within the shortest time possible through easy understandable instructions; useful, the can achieve his needs in a comprehensive and systematic way; learning ability, this principle basically answers the question how easy is it for the user to understand the basics (Miller, 2011). These principles are achieved through a well set up engineering design systems. This therefore brings us to the subject of discussion in this pap er and that is system design engineering. System design engineering involves design, construction and maintenance of large software systems. The first stage involves project management methodology. It is this methodology that is used to create web interface programs/ websites (Duyne, 2003). The main aim of coming up with a methodology is to concentrate on the design phases and analysis and this trickles down to reduced development and production cost. Web design methodologies are categorized into five and these are: Waterfall, Structure System Analysis and Design Method (SSADM), Prototyping, Rapid Application Development (RAD), Incremental Prototyping. According to Bean (2009), the water fall method contains a series of connected stages that cover the development process with the smallest level of redundant instruction between each stage. The disadvantage of this method is that its structures are rigid and lack iteration between any stages that are not adjacent. The web is rapidly g rowing structure therefore any method used in web site development must be highly versatile. The Structure Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM), is method designed to develop fairly large websites. This method concentrates on the design and analysis stages with the aim of reducing errors that might arise later. Prototyping is used in the development of interactive applications whereby the visual layout is important than the utility process of the system. The major problem of this method is that the user adds components on the prototype that are not part of the original system requirement thus the project is in constant state of prototype. Secondly it involves a large coverage of users; this raises the concern in defining a set of users to analyze the prototype (Garrett, 2011). The Rapid Application Development (RAD) method is a form of prototyping that contains numerous minute prototypes that make a large system and are deleted once they have been analyzed. Finally there is th e Incremental Prototyping, which allows development of large systems in stages. The systems are developed to completion first and then other minor entities are added to the system later. This method is mostly used by web designers because it is highly dynamic and it supports website growth in terms of functionality and size. The incremental method therefore helps manage website sprawl.† These are considered to be the traditional methods of web designing (Powell, 2000). It is now the designers mandate to choose which web system methodology that suits the needs of the project he

Consumer Law Master Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Consumer Law Master - Case Study Example These are the Trade Descriptions Act 1968 and Unfair Contract Terms Act. In order to critically discuss how consumer law can protect the interest of the consumer, it is essential to analyze the case study. Duck visited the showroom of Swan and looked at a television set priced at 500. He asked Swan about the set. Swan replied: "It's a beautiful model, never used, a snip at 500." In fact some of the internal wiring was not properly connected and the set had been switched on and used as a display unit in Swan's showroom for three days prior to Duck's visit. In this situation, and according to the Trade Descriptions Act, Swan is subject to the criminal offence as the one who has provided his consumer with misleading information. According to the Act, the description to the consumer may be given verbally or in the written form, thus there is no possibility for Swan to be justified on the basis of the information having been given in the oral form (Budnitz, 2004). The Act makes the verbal statement, including misleading information, an offence and thus it is a criminal action. ... However, there is also a question about what descriptions are to be supposed as trade under the act and is there any possibility for Swan to avoid penalty in this relation. The Act includes the following types of descriptions into the trade descriptions category: quantity, gauge or size of the goods; manufacture method; composition; performance, strength and fitness for purpose, which means that the goods should be mechanically sound and unbreakable, etc. In the situation described, it is clear that the misleading information provided by Swan, is included into the paragraph relating to the performance, strength of the TV set, and the fact that it must be mechanically sound. Thus, knowing the problem of the TV set and the wrong connections inside it, Swan has intentionally committed an offence and is subject to the penalties according to the Trade Descriptions Act 1968. As far as it is known that the statement made is false, it is also supposed to be a criminal offence under the Act, and as Swan is not a simple employee but is supposed to be a manager, he can be sued and subjected to these penalties, however the Act presupposes that any person guilty of intentional or unintentional mislead bears responsibility under the law. The maximum penalty is equal to 5,000 per offence. This penalty is provided by the Magistrates' Court; as for the crown Court, the fine size is unlimited, while the person guilty of misleading the customer may acqu ire up to two years of imprisonment. It is possible that Swan may lose his consumer credit license, but according to the situation described it is supposed that he does not have this license, having an agreement with Chicken-Credit Ltd,

Inquiring Minds want to know Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Inquiring Minds want to know - Case Study Example The information being sought touches on the private lives of the individuals participating in the study and this is a great challenge to the study as this is likely to raise many ethical issues. In the modern information age, protecting the personal and private information of an individual is extremely important. Yet, as is seen in this case, there are a number of issues which must be looked at in order to ensure that the privacy of the individual is well protected. Confidentiality Confidentiality refers to the fact that the information of the individuals will not be revealed to other people. It also loosely refers to the fact that the information collected for one purpose will not be used for other purposes. This is extremely important in order to help in protecting the privacy as well as other interests of the individual. In this particular study, there is the risk of the confidentiality of the individuals in at least two ways. First, the data used in the background research is dat a that was collected many years ago and for different purposes. For instance, according to Schindler (2011), data from the early 90s which was collected using reader service cards was used to determine how the technology had affected the way the people were using information. This may be a violation to confidentiality of the people to whom this information belongs. Secondly, the information being collected through the questionnaires may also bring about the issue of confidentiality if it is used in the wrong way and this must be looked at in a critical way. Confidentiality is very important and any research carrying out a research where individuals are involved will have to only assure the participants that their confidentiality will be protected but also do also everything that they can in order to guarantee that the confidentiality of the study will be guaranteed. In this case, there are a number of issues which must be looked at in order to protect the participants. Informed cons ent Informed consent refers to the fact that the participants of the study are clearly informed about the study, its purposes and how the information they will provide will be used. It also refers to the fact that the participants have wilfully agreed to participate in the study even after knowing exactly what the study will be used for. In this particular study, it is necessary for the participants to know exactly how the data they are providing will be used and how this will affect them. After this, they will need to give their informed consent and agree to participate in the study. This is especially important with regard to the privacy of the participants especially due to the fact that the individuals will be providing information which is quite personal with regard to their private life or their professional life. In this regard, it will be necessary for the person carrying this study to make sure that apart from guaranteeing confidentiality of the study, they will also help t he participants to understand clearly what the study is about and that the participants will willingly agree to participate in the study. Protecting the interests of the participants This has to do with the first three issues discussed above, that is, privacy, informed consent, and confidentiality which are all geared towards protecting the inte

Financial Reporting, Leasers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Financial Reporting, Leasers - Essay Example In an operating lease, lease payments are recognized as an expense on a straight-line basis over the lease term unless another systematic basis is more representative of the time-pattern of the entity's benefit. In the case of a finance lease, the lessee recognizes the lease as assets and liabilities in their financial statements at an amount equal to the fair value of the leased property. If the amount is lower, then at the present value of the minimum lease payments, each calculated at the start of the lease. When calculating the present value of the minimum lease payments, the discount rate used is the interest rate implicit in the lease. If this is not practicable to determine, then the lessee's incremental borrowing rate is used. All initial costs of the lessee are capitalized to the asset amount recognized. Minimum lease payments are apportioned between finance charge and the reduction of the outstanding principal liability. The finance charge is set in such a way that it produces a constant rate of interest on the outstanding balance of the liability. Lessors present assets subject to operating leases in their balance sheets according to the nature of the asset. Lease income from operating leases is recognized in income on a straight-line basis over the whole lease term, unless another systematic basis is more representative of the time-pattern of the entity's benefit. ... Treatment in the book of lessors Operating Leases Lessors present assets subject to operating leases in their balance sheets according to the nature of the asset. Lease income from operating leases is recognized in income on a straight-line basis over the whole lease term, unless another systematic basis is more representative of the time-pattern of the entity's benefit. Initial direct costs incurred by lessors in negotiating and arranging an operating lease is to be added to the carrying amount of the leased asset and recognized as an expense over the lease term on the same basis as the lease income. According to paragraph 56 of the incumbent IAS 17 Leases, Lessors shall, in addition to meeting the requirements of IFRS 7, disclose the following for operating leases: The future minimum lease payments under non-cancellable operating leases in the aggregate and for each of the following periods: 1. Not later than one year; 2. Later than one year and not later than five years; 3. Later than five years. Finance Leases For initial recognition, lessors recognize their assets held under a finance lease in their balance sheets and present them as receivable at an amount equal to the net investment in the lease. The recognition of finance income is to be based on a pattern reflecting a constant periodic rate of return on the lessor's net investment in the finance lease. Analysis Now, the above introductory information should put us in a position so as to judge the effect of the proposed changes in the IAS against the benchmark incumbent IAS 17 Leases. Disadvantages The proposed changes in the IAS would render the operating lease to be treated in the same way as a finance lease. For the

Learners Motivation within the EFL Setting Term Paper

Learners Motivation within the EFL Setting - Term Paper Example The intention of this study is motivation as an effective tool in enhancing student learning, particularly in the EFL educational setting. Through learning new instructional techniques and methods to improve teaching and learning, one has encountered several researches written by educators on the subject of learners’ motivation. In Suslu’s article entitled â€Å"Motivation of ESL Teachers† published in The Internet TESL Journal, the author clearly cited definitions of motivation as: â€Å"some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do things in order to achieve something; a term that is used to define the success or the failure of any complex task; deal(ing) with three matters: (1) what energizes human behavior; (2) what directs or channels such behavior; and (3) how this behavior is maintained or sustained.The theoretical framework of motivation has spurred one to apply crucial concepts within the educational setting and design teaching strategies that would enhance learning and students’ academic performance. From the practical application, one realized that when time, effort and resources are utilized to motivate learners within the learning environment, academic performance is enhanced as manifested through reflecting higher grades and increased comprehension and retention. Using this as the conceptual framework, one aims to determine and assess secondary researches on the subject within the EFL learning environment.... The challenges faced by an educator include determining the unique educational needs of the students and the pace by which students comprehend and absorb the theories being relayed. Through learning new instructional techniques and methods to improve teaching and learning, one has encountered several researches written by educators on the subject of learners’ motivation. In Suslu’s (2006) article entitled â€Å"Motivation of ESL Teachers† published in The Internet TESL Journal, the author clearly cited definitions of motivation as: â€Å"some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do things in order to achieve something (Harmer, 2001, p. 51); a term that is used to define the success or the failure of any complex task (Brown, 1994, p. 152); deal(ing) with three matters: (1) what energizes human behavior; (2) what directs or channels such behavior; and (3) how this behavior is maintained or sustained (Steers and Porter, 1991, p. 6)† (cited by Suslu, 2006, par. 2). The theoretical framework of motivation has spurred one to apply crucial concepts within the educational setting and design teaching strategies that would enhance learning and students’ academic performance. From the practical application, one realized that when time, effort and resources are utilized to motivate learners within the learning environment, academic performance is enhanced as manifested through reflecting higher grades and increased comprehension and retention. Using this as the conceptual framework, one aims to determine and assess secondary researches on the subject within the EFL learning environment. Part II: Method of Collecting the Literature One recognized that the veracity and credibility of authoritative sources on a

Leadership-assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Leadership-assignment - Essay Example Consequently, a leader must be impartial. Support of any group within the organization can lead to the politicking and development of partial reasoning. Impartiality makes leaders view the issues indicated with clarity and can solve conflicts between individuals in the society. Therefore, as a leader, impartiality is vital in developing group cohesion. The important role of the leader includes mentorship, which is required in team leadership (Bell 56). Mentorship leads to effective team development by increasing the skills of the members. Leaders must take initiative in ensuring members of the group are in good terms, which is reflected in the performance of the organization. In addition, Leaders must be the role model for the members because they represent their organization. The image of the organization depends on the leadership style. Therefore, an effective leader must always ensure unity of purpose and focus within the group, which ensures cohesiveness in then group (Bell 89). The development of an effective team will depend on the leader’s commitment to development and group cooperation. In conclusion, an effective leader must rely on personal skills to succeed in team

The Decadence of Han China and the Roman Empire Essay Example for Free

The Decadence of Han China and the Roman Empire Essay In the both of the declines of the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty in China, there were similarities in many aspects, such as their economics failing, a sudden decrease in both populations, and collapse of both their political systems. Although, even in these few of the many similarities, there were differences in the economic failure, the decay of their cultures, and the political collapse of the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty in China. In both the Han Dynasty in China and the Roman Empire, economic failure was one of the factors of both their declinations. Both were subjected to harsh invasions by surrounding nomadic barbarians and were forced into spending large amounts of money on border defense and an offensive team, such as Han China’s Great Wall of China and the Roman Empire’s several garrisons. Both Han China and the Roman Empire had a substantial and harshly effectual sudden drop in population, as well. Han China and the Roman Empire both fell to similar plagues and epidemics which caused many people to die and flee their residences to get away from the inevitable sickness. Both of the governments of Han China and the Roman Empire suddenly stopped flourishing and working correctly suddenly due to unstable leadership and the surrounding nomadic barbarian invasions becoming too much to handle for both Han China and the Roman Empire. The Han Dynasty in China and the Roman Empire both split into separate parts within themselves, the Roman Empire splitting into two separate eastern and western parts, and Han China splitting into three separate parts. Within the economic failure in both Han China and the Roman Empire, Han China mainly collapsed due to taxes being too high and people revolting, such as the Yellow Turban Rebellion. The Yellow Turban Rebellion was Han China’s uprising of society because of unfair taxation. The Han Chinese government tried to stop it, but there was too much corruption within the government, causing its military efforts to stop the Yellow Turban Rebellion to fail miserably. The Roman Empire was in fear of abandonment as many civilians left due to the fact that their taxes that were being collected were too high and the civilians in the Roman Empire that remained were stuck in financial troubles. Han China and the Roman Empire’s cultures fell apart differently. The Han Dynasty in China had one common script and common culture, while the Roman Empire’s was in many fragments, making the fall of Han China more severe because the language and many things surrounding it fell apart. The political confusion, instability, and eventual collapse was very different for both the Han Dynasty in China and the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire had split into the two eastern and western parts and Han China had split into three, as mentioned above. But with that, the Roman Empire had a string of weak leaders which caused succession and an eventual civil war within itself. In Han China, public servants such as politicians became corrupt, which in turn caused landlords to suddenly have a substantial increase in power, figuratively robbing everyone else outside of that social class of their money. In conclusion, between the Han Dynasty of China and the Roman Empire, their downfalls were the same in ways such as economic failure, decrease in population, and the collapse of both of their political systems. Even though they are similar in those ways, they differ in the ways their economies crashed and fell apart, they way Han China’s and the Roman Empire’s cultures dissolved and faded away, and even the way their political systems had collapsed.

Climate Change Mitigation Strategies: UNFCCC and India

Climate Change Mitigation Strategies: UNFCCC and India From UNFCCC Goals to India Abstract: Climate Change has the potential to alter the ability of the earths physical and biological systems to provide goods and services essential for sustainable development. Recognition of Climate Change as a significant global environmental challenge has a recent origin. International efforts to address the climate change formally began only a decade ago with the adoption of United Nations Framework Convention to Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992. India is a party to UNFCCC and the government of India attaches great importance to climate change issue. India is a vast country covering 3.28 million Km2 with diverse surface features and supports 16.2 percent of the global human population. Endowed with varied soils, climate, biodiversity and ecological regimes, under diverse natural conditions and over a billion people speaking different languages, following different religions and living in rural and urban areas, India is an example for a complex yet successful democratic system. Decentralization of powers through local government, to benefit the grass root level is another significant feature of Indian Government. The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts, 1992, of the Constitution of India have endowed vast powers to local governments at rural and urban levels respectively. Indias commitments to mitigate climate change are reflected in the essence of these two acts and the working and powers given to the local government. This paper explains and brings to picture how climate change mitigation strategies are filtered in Indian System right from the UNFCCC goals to The Government of India and further to smaller levels of local governments. The paper will explain the hierarchy and working of Indian governance system and highlights the climate change initiatives within this system. The paper will also analyze the constraints and gaps in the institutional setup at local level, which, if rectified, would give more successful results in Climate Change Mitigation Mission of the Government of India. Introduction: Over a decade ago most countries joined an international treaty- The United Nations Convention on Climate Change so as to consider the impacts of climate change and to work for adaptation and mitigation initiatives for secure future and sustainable development. The convention, commonly known as the UNFCCC entered into force on 21 March 1994. The ultimate objective of The convention is stabilizing green house gas emissions at a lower level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate systems. Under the convention the governments- Gather and share information on greenhouse gas emissions, national policies and best practices Launch national strategies for addressing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to expected impacts, including the provision of financial and technological support to developing countries. Cooperate in preparing the adaptation to the impacts of climate change. In 1997, the Kyoto protocol came into being, which shared the conventions objectives, principles and institutions and also significantly strengthened the convention by committing the parties to individual and specially; â€Å"legally binding targets† to limit or reduce climate change. The text of the Kyoto Protocol was adopted unanimously in 1997; and it entered into force on 16 February 2005. India is signatory to various multilateral environmental agreements, including The Montreal Protocol, The convention on Biological diversity, the United nations Convention to combat desertification ,including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) .Government of India attaches great importance to climate change issues. Eradication of poverty, avoiding risks to food production, and sustainable development are three principles embedded in the Convention. At present, information provided in the Indias Initial National Communication to the UNFCCC is in terms of guidelines prescribed for Parties not included in Annex I to the UNFCCC and the inventory is prepared for the base year 1994. India is a vast country. It covers 3.28 million km2 of area having diverse surface features. Also, it occupies only 2.4 percent of the worlds geographical area, but supports 16.2 per cent of the global human population. The country is endowed with varied soils, climate, biodiversity and ecological regimes. â€Å"Under such diverse natural conditions, over a billion people speaking different languages, following different religions and living in rural and urban areas, live in harmony under a democratic system†( India NATCOM,2004). Climate Change Negotiations Global warming issue became a part of the international agenda in 1988. The climate issue, initiated by the small island nation Malta, came up at the UN General Assembly in December 1988, as part of a discussion on the common heritage of mankind. The resolution set up a preparatory committee to work towards an international agreement. The concern for global warming particularly by the industrialized countries geared up since then and climate politics came into being and were refined with a series of international conferences and formal negotiations that followed. The momentum culminated in the signing of a Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) and opened for signatures at the Rio Earth Summit in June, 1992. The FCCC aims at stabilization of greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations, in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Subsequently, the parties to the FCCC adopted the Kyoto Protocol in December, 1997. However, the developing nations see the Protocol as burdened with loopholes because of the fact that it emphasizes on the economic concerns, rather than ecological or social justice. The main area of dispute between the developed countries and the developing countries lies in the sectors pertaining to equity and sustainability. However, the operational details of the Kyoto Protocol have now been finalised after intensive deliberations at Marrakech, on November 10, 2001, which was participated by 171 countries . The protocol has been guided by Article 3.0 of the FCCC, and marks the first global attempt to place legally binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions from developed countries. The Protocol calls for 5.2% reduction from their 1990 level of GHG emissions by the developed countries during the period 2008-2012. It also specifies the amount each country must contribute toward meeting the reduction goal. Nations with the highest CO2 emissions like the United States, Japan and most European nations are expected to reduce emissions by a range of 6 to 8 per cent. By 2005, all industrialized nations that ratify the accord must also show demonstrable progress toward fulfilling their respective commitments under the Protocol. Some issues that add to the complexity of the Kyoto Protocol: Considerations for baseline and its effects The target of 5.2% reduction beyond 1990 level in the commitment period 2008-2012, were dependent on 1990 emissions. This meant that if a country which had high emissions in 1990 and had reduced them between 1990 and thereafter, then it could actually increase its emission once again, or only stabilize these, and not carry out any reductions. As an example one can analyse the case of Australia. In 1990, as much as 30 percent of the emissions were from deforestation, which eventually became a blessing for the country for, instead of penalizing for creating the problem in the first place, Australia has been able to use its emission to its advantage, by winning the right to count any improvement from its 1990 level as its national credit. And as its deforestation rate has been controlled, it actually can increase its emission above and beyond the figure of 8 percent it is expected to reduce. On the other hand, USA and Japan were lobbying hard to change the date of baseline from 1990 to 1995. The reason for this lies in the fact that both the countries have made a significant increase in carbon emissions between 1990 and 1995. Flexible mechanisms The Kyoto Protocol includes three mechanisms Art.6 (Joint Implementation), Art.12 (Clean Development Mechanism) and Art.17 (Emissions Trading), These mechanisms are meant to pave an explicit way for developed countries to meet their Kyoto targets easily. The cheapest and the most attractive option for meeting the emission targets of the North (i.e developed countries-Annexe I) being the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) that will be operated on the project basis invested in the South (i.e under developed countries). This implies that, as global warming is bound to be unsolved even by the end of this century, the South would have to pay a heavy price in future once they have reached a high level of energy efficiency through means like CDM. For by then the cost of carbon cutting will be very high even for the developing countries, which would eventually have to do the carbon cutting on their own. The next issue comes on the question of energy-efficient technology, which the North wishes to push to the South through CDM. As technology up-gradation is a continuous process, hence what is the most efficient technology at the time of implementation of the CDM project, may be obsolete within few years that follows. Principle of equity: the Kyoto Protocol does not define the rights and responsibilities of all nations within a reasonable frame. So long as the world remains within a carbon based energy economy, equitable sharing of the atmosphere shall remain a critical issue, especially for poor developing countries who need a maximum space for their future economic growth. The Kyoto reduction, by itself, is inadequate to achieve a stabilization of climate change by 2100. A continual and larger reduction, similar to that stipulated in the Kyoto Protocol for the 2008-2012 period, will be needed in the future in order to begin to stabilize long-term greenhouse gas emissions. Even if stabilization of greenhouse gases is achieved, global warming will still continue for several decades and sea levels will continue to rise for several centuries. This is because Even if the emissions from the developed countries were reduced to zero in the near future, the current trends of growing emissions from developing countries alone could force the atmospheric concentration to exceed stabilization levels of 550 ppm ( Parivesh, CPCB,2006). Thus, participation of all countries, including the developing countries such as India, is essential for a successful worldwide effort to arrest the growth of greenhouse gas emissions. India and Climate Change- The Threats and Vulnerability Climate Change is a major global environmental problem and an important issue because of diverse impacts not only ecological, but economic, social, political and physical in nature and content. It is a matter of great concern especially for developing countries like India who have limited capacity to develop and adopt strategies to reduce their vulnerability to changes in climate. Global, national and local level measures are need of the hour to combat the adverse impacts of climate change induced damages. â€Å"India being a developing country has low capacity to withstand the adverse impacts of climate change due to high dependence of majority of population on climate sensitive sectors as the agriculture, forestry and fisheries†,( Shukla, et.al, 2003). This is coupled with poor infrastructure facilities, weak institutional mechanisms and lack of financial resources. This is the reason why we are seriously concerned with the possible impacts of climate change. The possible impacts of climate change are mentioned below: Water stress and reduction in the availability of fresh water due to potential decline in rainfall. Threats to agriculture and food security, since agriculture is monsoon dependent and rain dependent agriculture dominates in many states. Shifts in area and boundary of different forest types and threats to biodiversity with adverse implications for forest-dependent communities. Adverse impact on natural ecosystems, such as wetlands, mangroves, grasslands and mountain ecosystems. Adverse impact of sea-level rise on coastal agriculture and settlements. Impact on human health due to the increase in vector and water-borne diseases, such as malaria. Increased energy requirements and impact on climate-sensitive industry and infrastructure. One of the various reasons for vulnerability of India depends on its typical and diverse climatic conditions. India is subject to a wide range of variation in climatic conditions from the freezing Himalayan winters in the north to the tropical climate of the southern peninsula, from the damp, rainy climate in the north-east to the arid Great Indian Desert in the north-west, and from the marine climates of its vast coastline and islands to the dry continental climate in the interior. The Indian summer monsoon is the most important feature in dictating meteorology of the Indian subcontinent and, hence, its economy. Almost all regions of the country receive entire annual rainfall during the summer monsoon (also called the SW monsoon), while some parts of the south-eastern states also receive rainfall during early winter from the north-east monsoon. Therefore, India could be more at risks than many other countries from changes in temperature and sea level. Models predict an average increase in temperature in India from 2.3 to 4.8  °C for the bench mark doubling of carbon dioxide scenario (Lonergan, World Bank Technical Paper No.402, 1998). Temperatures would rise more in Northern India than in Southern India. In the North Indian Ocean, under a doubling, the average number of tropical disturbance days could increase from 17 to 29 a year (Haarsma et.al Climate Dynamics, Vol.8, 1993); while, without protection, approximately 7 million people would be displaced, and 5,760 Km2 of land and 4,200 Km of road would be lost (Asthana, JNU, New Delhi, 1993). Further, in the Indian context, climate change could represent an additional stress on the ecological and socioeconomic system that are already facing tremendous pressure due to rapid urbanization, industrialization and economic development. Options for Mitigation â€Å"The ability to adapt to climate change depends on the level of income and technology, as well as the capacity of the system of governance and existing institutions to cope with change. The ability to mitigate GHG emissions depends on industrial structure (the mix of industrial activities), social structure (including, e.g., the distance people must travel to work or to engage in recreational activities), the nature of governance (especially the effectiveness of government policy), and the availability and cost of alternatives. In short, what is feasible at the national level depends significantly on what can be done at the subnational, local, and various sectoral levels†(Climate Change 2001: Working group III: Mitigation; IPCC,2001).The challenges of climate change mitigation involve diverse issues economic, political, social and environmental. Governance is one of the prime issues in mitigation of climate change impacts. A structured governance system is the only tool through which any policy framework or initiative can be achieved. The importance or role of governance in mitigation thus can be described through its three pillars: Organizational Structure- Through governance the qualities of organization participation, transparency and accountability can be achieved in the mitigation exercise at all levels.. Financial Mobilization- This involves ensuring financial commitment globally, at national levels and also at local levels of the government Legal Framework- It ensures empowerment, enforcement and compliance of mitigative strategies and supporting environmental laws. As the National GHG inventory for India shows, the major increase in GHG emissions over the next 20 years would be related to energy consumption. As India has abundant coal deposits, it is beyond doubt that coal will be the dominant source of energy. Therefore, energy efficiency measures in this sector remain our prime concern. Power generation in India is expected to reach a peak demand of 176 GW by 2012, and the total energy requirement will be 1058 billion units (Parivesh, Central Pollution Control Board, 2006). This is why; increasing the use of renewable energy and energy efficiency in the form of low carbon options are the two main measures that can greatly reduce GHG emissions. We will now simultaneously specify what scientific mitigation tools for climate change are available for various sectors and the corresponding governance measures to actually target the process of mitigation. The energy sector: Fiscal incentives and taxes, voluntary emission reductions, green rating, and capacity building etc. Another area of importance is the transmission and distribution losses, which is energy loss. There is considerable scope of reducing losses, meant to translate into a large mitigation potential. Two major categories of Barriers hinder adoption of electricity conservation and demand management in India. a) Macro-level barrier At the level of governance system; either policy induced or due to lack of appropriate policies and; b) Micro-level barriers related to the consumers and the economic environment they face.This can be equated to lack of awareness about possible alternatives on the part of the consumers and lack of awareness drives on the part of the government. The forestry sector: IPCC Second Assessment Report categorizes three broad options for abatement viz. Conservation management: This strategy attempts to conserve the existing carbon storage capacity of forests by halting or slowing down forests deforestation and forests degradation. Storage management : This strategy attempts to increase carbon strategy in woody vegetation and soil in existing degraded forests, as well as to create new carbon sinks in areas where forests do not exists or have been cleared. These may be achieved by promoting natural regeneration, reforestation on deforested lands, aforrestation of non-forest lands and agro-forestry on crop and pastureland. Substitution management: This strategy attempts involves the replacement of fossil fuels by renewable fuel wood or other biomass products. Here, governance plays an important role based on it a capacity to generate and bring about changes in the management of forests and augmentation of use of renewable products. The agriculture sector: Methane emissions from rice cultivation remain the major contributor of GHG emissions. Other sources being enteric fermentation, manure management, agricultural soils etc. Abatement strategy in this sector in India can be achieved given the scientific expertise available in India, but require gearing up by proper governmental intervention at the level of ministry of agriculture, as far as policy initiatives are concern, and through local governments for implementation and monitoring. The industrial sector: As the national inventory of GHG shows, major contribution came from energy intensive sectors like iron steel, fertilizer, cement, aluminium, paper pulp etc. A few option available for energy efficient options in power, industrial and domestic sector are given as follows: Source: Teri, New Delhi. These can be supported by further subsidizing use of energy efficient options and where required made mandatory by the government under the periphery of the existing environmental laws of the country. Mitigation through sinks: Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by a number of processes that operate on different time scales, and is subsequently transferred to reservoirs or sinks. The Kyoto Protocol through its Ariticle 3.3 allows afforestation as a sink to reduce carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. Further, Article 3.4 of the Kyoto Protocol states that additional human induced activities in the agricultural soils and LULUCF categories may be added to the three mechanisms (Joint implementation, Clean Development mechanism and Emission trading) subject to certain conditions. In India, forestry is dominated by government based institutions. These institutions need new insight so that they can effectively incorporate mitigation policies and measures in their resource management activities. According to the central Pollution Control Board, India has been persistently implementing one of the largest reforestation programs in the tropics with over one million hectares planted annually. Nearly half of this reforestation is on degraded forests and village common land. It is estimated that the carbon uptake in forests, degraded forests, and plantations is estimated to offset the gross carbon emissions from the forests sector. Carbon dioxide emissions in India are projected to increase from no-net emissions in 1990 to 77 million tonnes by 2020( Parivesh, CPCB,2006). Barriers to mitigation: Greenhouse gas mitigation measures are compounded by several barriers inherent to the process of development. In India, inequitable distribution of income and wealth forms a core feature of barriers to effective implementation of any type of intervention in India, leave apart climate change. Available instruments to limit domestic GHG emissions can be categorized into market based instruments, regulatory instruments, and voluntary agreements. For the developing countries, however, domestic structural reforms and policies on trade liberalization and liberalization of energy markets act as barriers to GHG reduction. These policies coupled with macroeconomics, market oriented reforms, set the framework in which more specific climate policies would be implemented. The IPCC Special Report on technology Transfer (IPCC, 2000) identifies various important barriers that could impede environmental technology transfer, such as: lack of data, information, and knowledge, especially on emerging technologies; inadequate vision about the understanding of local needs and demands; high transaction costs and poor macro economic conditions; insufficient human and institutional capabilities; inappropriate technology adopted and Poor legal institutions and framework. These hold good for the overall barriers of mitigation in Indian Context also. In terms of governance and its intervention, technology transfer can be traded off with some of our own indigenous technologies. This will ensure equitable exchange and also promote indigenous Indian Science. National Policy for Climate Change Mitigation We, as present generation have inherited this environment and atmosphere from our ancestors. Further the consequences of climate change will be faced by our children in the future. And so it can be said that climate change is an inherently different and irreversible problem as compared to other environmental problems. Also, the assumption that prior experience of problems like air pollution has failed at many levels as a good model upon which policy decisions on climate can be based. Options to mitigate climate change include actual emission reductions carbon dioxide sequestration and investments in developing technologies that will make future reductions affordable and easily available since cheap relative to their current costs. Since the inception of UNFCC in 1992, the Govt. of India has been an active participant in the climate charge negotiations. India being a party to the UNFCC was the 38th country to ratify it on November 01, 1993. The Ministry of Environment Forests is the nodal Ministry for all environment related activities in the country and is the nodal Ministry for co-coordinating the climate charge policy as well. The working group on the FCCC was constituted to oversee the implementation of obligations under the FCCC and to act as a consultative mechanism in the Govt. for impacts to policy formulation on climate change. To enlarge the feedback mechanism the Govt. of India has constituted an Advisory group on climate charge under the chairmanship of the Minister of Environment Forests. Development of National Guidelines Policy Options for reducing GHG Emissions The national guidelines or framework for monitoring GHG emissions and policy options for reducing GHG should emphasize not only on issues associated with climate change but also include the following: Emission Forecasting Setting goals Policy criteria Policy evaluation Organizational and political issues Climate change and GHG emission and sequestration may include many sectors of society and extend far into the future. Furthermore, policy measures to address GHGs overlap with many other public policy objectives, however in a complimentary way. Policy formulations involve: Understanding the issues at hand, Having a broad vision of the range of actions that governments can take to address those issues, Selecting from within this the approaches that offer the most potential far achieving multiple public goals. More importantly, the policy formulation process must respond to local circumstances and must address institutional, fiscal, political, and other constraints. The Govt. of India has nevertheless addressed a large number of local and regional environmental issues in its developmental strategy that are complementary to the climate change issue. Institutional Arrangements So Far For Climate Change Related Strategies In Area of Research The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Ministry of Science and Technology (MST), Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), Ministry of Water Resources (MWR), Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Ministry of Non Conventional Energy (MNES), Ministry of Defence (MoD), Ministry of Health and Family welfare (MoHFW), are the main ministries of the Government of India which promote and undertake climate and climate change-related research in the country. The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is also am important agency involved in working of this area and is under the direct governance of the Prime Minister.It supports all the above agencies with satellite-based passive remote sensing. The MoEF, MST, MHRD and MOA operate under the umbrella of many premier national research laboratories and universities. The most prominent being the 40 laboratories of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), an autonomous body under the MST; and the vast network of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) under the MOA. The CSIR is the national RD organization which provides scientific and industrial research for Indias economic growth and human welfare. It has a countrywide network of 40 laboratories and 80 field centers. The ICAR network includes institutes, bureaus, national research centers, The Department of Science and Technology (DST) under the MST coordinates advanced climatic and weather research and data collection over the Indian landmass. There are three premier institutions under DST that are solely dedicated to atmospheric science viz. the IMD, the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecast (NCMRWF) and the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM). Apart from the Indian initiatives, climate change research promoted by international organizations like the World Climate Research Program (WCRP), International Geosphere Biosphere Programme (IGBP), International Human Dimension Program (IHDP) and DIVERSITAS are being strongly supported by various Indian agencies like Indian Climate Research Program (ICRP) under DST, National Committee- International Geosphere Biosphere Programme (NC-IGBP) constituted by Indian National Science Academy (INSA) and Geosphere-Biosphere Program (GBP) of ISRO. Agencies like CSIR, also provides infra-structural and financial support to carry out research in the area of global change In Area of Development The single most important feature of our post-colonial experience is that the people of India have conclusively demonstrated their ability to forge a united nation despite its diversity, and to pursue development within the framework of a functioning, vibrant and pluralistic democracy. In this process, the democratic institutions have put down firm roots, which continue to gain strength and spread. A planned approach to development has been the central process of the Indian democracy, as reflected in the national five-year plans, state plans,departmental annual plans, and perspective plans of various ministries of the central and state governments. For the last five and a half decades, the guiding objectives of the Indian planning process have been sustained economic growth, poverty alleviation, food, health, education and shelter for all, containing population growth, employment generation, self-reliance, peoples participation in planning and programme implementation, and infrastruc ture development. The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development, 1992, provides the basis for the integration of environmental considerations in the policies of various sectors. It aims at the achievement of sustainable lifestyles and the proper management and conservation of resources. The Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution, 1992, stresses the prevention of pollution at the source, based on the ‘polluter pays principle. It encourages the use of the most appropriate technical solutions, particularly for the protection of heavily polluted areas and river stretches. The Forest Policy, 1988, highlights environmental protection through preservation and restoration of the ecological balance. The policy seeks to substantially increase the forest cover in the country through afforestation programmes. This environmental framework aims to take cognizance of the longer-term environmental perspective related to industrialization, power generation, transportation, mining, agriculture, irrigation and other such economic activities, as well as to address parallel concerns related to public health and safety. The statutory framework for the environment includes the Indian Forest Act, 1927, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, and the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Other enactments include the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991, the National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995, and the National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997. The courts have also elaborated on the concepts relating to sustainable development, and the ‘polluter pays and ‘precautionary principles. In India, matters of public interest, particularly pertaining to the environment, are articulated effectively through a vigilant media, an active NGO community, and very importantly, through the judicial process which has recognized the citizens right to a clean environment as a component of the right to li